Callum peers nervously out of the gloom of his cramped, graffiti-sprayed caravan, which he shares with a tiny tabby kitten. It’s not much, but the alternative is the streets.

Two weeks ago, he almost lost the caravan he calls home when city council started removing live-in vans from a tree-lined lane through historic parkland in the north of the city.

“It was horrible. It was upsetting. [The council] took some people’s caravans who weren’t there at the time,” he said. “I tried to stop them but I had to prioritise stopping them from taking my own home.”

Callum, 30, had to pay someone £20 to tow the caravan away before it could be lifted on to the back of a council lorry. There are now five caravans left on Parry’s Lane, which they once lined from end to end.

Bristol has become the vehicle-dwelling capital of the UK recently, with more people living on its kerbsides than anywhere else in the country. The city council’s count of residential vehicles has risen from 100 in 2020 to 650 this year, housing about 800 people. Other ­hotspots include Brighton, Falmouth and Glastonbury.

The removals have come amid rising tensions between some users of the 442-acre Downs, which are skirted by Bristol’s grandest, most expensive properties, and the growing numbers in residential vans. The Friends of the Downs and Avon Gorge conservation group recently counted more than 60 live-in vehicles parked on roads throughout the park, compared to six on just one road five years ago.

Vehicle dwellers have been by some residents of using parts of the park as a latrine and leaving unsightly rubbish. Some complain the vans create “no-go” zones. But the people living in the them argue they have few options as they cannot afford soaring rents.

According to the Centre for Cities, they have been than anywhere else in the country. Bristol is now the second most expensive place to rent outside London, with the latest ONS figures showing average monthly rents have £1,734.

Many of the vans have just moved around the corner. Callum is now parked up 100 metres from his original spot, next to a thicket of bushes. “We are being shoved around,” he said. “We are treated like we are not really citizens [by the council] and they don’t have a duty of care towards us, which they do.”

Callum’s caravan can be stiflingly hot in summer and unbearably cold in winter, even with the wood burner he has installed. Life on the road can also be dangerous, especially if you are vulnerable. Callum has dark purple bruises around his eyes and said he struggles with unspecified issues. He is desperate to move somewhere more permanent, where he can get more support.

“I asked to be housed over one year ago,” he said. “I’ve asked to be placed on a proper site where the council might actually take care of us.”

The Friends of the Downs acknowledge that the vehicle dwellers have limited options. There are five council-run sites, with space for 60 vehicles, but they are all currently full.

“We have a great deal of sympathy for people whose circumstances force them into this itinerant lifestyle,” said Robert Westlake, the group’s chair. “That said, we’ve always felt this situation has gone on too long and has been badly managed.”

Westlake, who ran Bristol’s parks before he retired, said the steadily increasing number of vehicle ­dwellers has led to the use of some copses of trees in the park as open-air toilets, which has caused the cancellation of outdoor classrooms for children. He added that residents have ­complained about buildups of ­rubbish and, on one occasion, a £500,000 flat sale falling through.

Westlake, who also chairs the council advisory board for the Downs, blames the council: “Many of the problems have come because no services have been provided. They have got nowhere to go to the loo. There’s no provision for fresh water and no provision to have any of their refuse to be removed.”

He said that a few altercations have occurred when residents complained to vehicle dwellers. “I’ve not personally seen any [instances]. People have rung up saying that when they have asked them to leave or asked them to turn down music, they have finished up in a confrontation. But I think the word ‘intimidation’ is a bit strong.”

The city’s first-ever survey of vehicle dwellers this year revealed the single biggest reason to live in a vehicle is the inability to find or afford anywhere else to live – although others prefer a nomadic way of life or one that fits with itinerant work patterns on the festival circuit.

Hali Vita has recently arrived on the Downs in her small converted truck. She is living with her two children, who are staying with her during the summer holidays. She wants a permanent residence after years on the road. “It was OK when [the children] were smaller. But it is just not doable in one bed,” she said. “My self-employment is not bringing in enough at the moment [to rent in Bristol].”

The council survey suggests that one in 10 vehicle dwellers have children under 18 living with them full or part-time.

Vita often works 60 hours a week but says she cannot save enough to rent a property large enough for them all. “I feel helpless. I’ve called the council but I’m not a priority,” she said.

“I’m forced into this situation but I’m done with it. The children need stability, a house and a garden. I can’t provide it right now. It’s hard for me,” Vita said.

The survey also found that the vast majority of people living in vans are working, in full, part-time or self-employed work.

Max Haskins had been living in his van on Parry’s Lane for more than a year, but moved to another spot on the Downs before the council threatened to take legal action. He works as a carpenter, fencer and roofer, but he is hoping to branch out into van conversions soon.

“I’ve worked all my life,” said Haskins, 32, but he prefers life on the road. “It is the freedom. I move about most weekends. I go to Cornwall and Wales. I can save. I don’t have to chase pay cheques.”

Bristol city council said it took action to encourage the van-dwellers on Parry’s Lane to move due to their growing impact on the local area. It was monitoring the situation and engaging with residents and people in the encampment.

“Since some members of the group have left and abandoned vehicles have been removed, the impact of the group on the local area has returned to more acceptable levels which we hope will remain the case,” a council spokesperson said.